MASTER OF THE SLAVE SHIP

by
Richardson L. Spofford

Delivered to The Chicago Literary Club
November 25, 1996

History is replete with accounts of persons who have persevered through crises of body, mind and soul to make a career and a contribution to our culture. Great Britain during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries has had many largely self-educated men who made important contributions to their societies. Some are still famous today while others are known only to scholars. Our subject is to be found somewhere in between,

John Newton was born in London in 1725, the son of a ship-captain in the Mediterranean trade and a frail but devout mother. His father was well-known and respected in the trade. A most unusual feature of his father's early life was schooling at a Jesuit academy in Spain. In an age when fathers were expected to be formal toward their children, the exaggerated Spanish sense of dignity he must have learned, along with the need to command and simultaneously keep a distance from those immediately around him resulted in a difficult relationship for the son. Also, Captain Newton was often away for extended periods of time. Thus John depended principally on his mother for parenting. She taught him to read hymns and scriptural passages and young John was greatly devoted to her.

When he was 7, his mother died. His father soon remarried, to a much younger woman who took little interest in John. Soon his father sent him off to one of the many boarding schools of the time.

Most such schools were poor, providing rudimentary education under Spartan living conditions and severe discipline. Oliver Goldsmith claimed they were typically run by men who had failed at other occupations. Samuel Johnson, himself a former schoolmaster, advocated whipping as children were manageable only by fear.

In a time when schoolboys were typically rough and rude, the quiet and sensitive John had no friends and generally used his time to study. In the two years at school he did acquire a foundation in Latin and mathematics without much family encouragement. Children were expected to have knowledge crammed into them and to grow up faster than in modern times.

Returning home after the two years, he was left to his own devices for the next two years. He now had a half-brother and his stepmother devoted little maternal attention to John. Like Samuel Johnson, he had turned away from childhood religious teaching.

When John was eleven, his father took him on the first of several sea voyages. While they were interesting, he had no occupation aboard ship and almost no one to talk to. Father and son did not understand each other and John could only read what was available and think his own thoughts.

At age 12 there occurred the first event to shape his later religious and philosophical development. He was thrown from a horse and only by inches escaped serious injury or death from being impaled on the sharp sticks of a hedge. Another event was the drowning of a friend when John was 15. He had planned, with some others, to row out to a ship anchored offshore. Arriving a few minutes late at the place of departure, he was much disappointed to find the others had left without him. Watching from shore, he saw the boat overturn and one boy drown. The funeral service, complete with mourners, hearse and church service made a great impression on him.

On another voyage, he went ashore in a Dutch port and found himself outside a bookstore. Being a lover of books and a serious reader, he went in and bought a book by a prominent English free-thinker. He had not forgotten his early training and was greatly impressed by the arguments for independent questioning of established doctrine. This approach to religion gave him much to think about for the rest of his life.

By the time John was 16, his father wished to find a suitable shore occupation so as to be with his wife and second son. Neither of them had any particular love for John, who indeed was somewhat anti-social toward the rest of the family. He was old enough to go to work but it was up to his father to find something. Indeed, he was a problem child. Captain Newton had a friend in Spain, a merchant and trader who agreed to take John as an apprentice. Spanish ways and life in the counting-house did not appeal to a rebellious young man, and John soon returned to his father's home.

Joseph Manesty, a Liverpool shipowner and trader, was one of the Captain's good friends. He agreed to send John on a voyage to Jamaica, where John could learn to be a sugar planter and if all went well, to make some money. This would have sounded like a fine opportunity to many young men without prospects.

Shortly before time to leave for Liverpool, two things happened. The Captain sent John on an errand near London. About the same time, his father received an invitation to visit from Catlett family of Chatham. When John's mother was taken with her final illness some ten years previously, she had gone to stay there with her old friend Mrs. Catlett, and had died there. Captain Newton had long since let the friendship lapse so this invitation came as a great surprise. He had no objection if John detoured to make the visit, but it was only at the last fork in the road that John decided to do so.

What he found was one of the four great turning-points in his life. The Catletts were a solid, close-knit, friendly and fun-loving family who welcomed John almost like one of the family. They had two daughters and two sons, one just John's age. One of the daughters, Mary, was an attractive girl of about 13, who, as a proper young lady said little or nothing to this newcomer, but obviously they each took favorable notice of the other. For his part, John found he liked being part of a real family. To make a long story short, he delayed departure so long that he missed the ship for Jamaica.

Returning to his own home where he did not feel welcome, he found his father displeased, but perhaps less so that might have been expected; the elder Newton was not totally unreasonable according to his own standards. Another shipmaster friend took John on a Mediterranean voyage lasting nearly a year, and this time he went as an ordinary seaman.

Returning, he went immediately to visit the Catletts in order to further the acquaintance with Mary. In this he was successful, the young people finding themselves seriously attracted to each other. John, however, had no real prospects yet and consent of both sets of parents to marriage being essential, there was nothing further to be done just then. Again he stayed too long, missing another berth his father had arranged. In any case, the prospect of another year at sea before the mast was unattractive.

Thus in 1744, aged almost 19, John waited for something to turn up. One day, strolling along the waterfront, the second turning point came. He was seized by a navy press gang and along with others, shortly found himself aboard H.M.S. HARWICH, anchored at the mouth of the Thames. It was a warship of 976 tons with a complement of about 350 men. Fortunately, the lieutenant in charge of the press gang, learning that John's father was a retired captain, allowed him to write to his father.

The Captain was of two minds here. All merchant seaman hated press gangs, because not only could they seize men ashore, they could also impress them from merchant ships while at sea. Living conditions on merchant ships were not good; on naval vessels they could be more crowded and discipline was much more severe. Captain Newton could possibly have found someone with influence to have John released. On the other hand, war with France was expected and he evidently thought this service would be good experience for a young man with no fixed purpose in life. He communicated with Capt. Cartaret, commander of the HARWICH . resulting in John's appointment as midshipman. It may be of interest to repeat Samuel Johnson's comparison of a jail and a ship, in which he said he would prefer jail, because a ship was also a jail with a chance of drowning. Sometimes convicted criminals were given a choice: jail or the navy.

A midshipman's life was difficult,. He could be ordered about by any officer at any hour of day or night, to go to the depths of the hold or the top of the tallest mast. Living conditions were somewhat better than for the common seaman, and he did not have to eat and sleep among so many tough, disagreeable characters. It was good entry-level training. Many senior officers of the Navy took justifiable pride in having advanced from the rank of midshipman. John made few friends aboard, but became close to two other midshipmen with whom he debated his freethinker approach to religion.

Soon war was declared and the HARWICH went to sea on convoy duty. After a few short voyages which allowed brief shore leaves to see Mary, word came that the HARWICH was to convoy a large merchant fleet to the East Indies. Such a voyage could last several years. Needless to say, John was greatly troubled. Securing a one-day leave, he went to the Catletts. Evidently under great pressure, he did or said something wrong, bringing rebuke to Mary from her parents. Since he was in no position to make a serious proposal, her parents told him not to return or to write to her.

Early in 1745 the fleet was assembled and set sail. Off the coast a severe storm caused much damage and the fleet anchored off Plymouth for repairs. Coincidentally, his father had acquired some interest in the Royal Africa Company, some of whose ships were moored nearby. Knowing his father would be there, he conceived the idea of requesting a transfer to one of those ships, which would mean a shorter voyage. On account of previously overstaying leave, Capt. Cartaret refused.

So here was 20-year old John, recently resigned to a 4 or even 5 year absence, greatly troubled and adrift in his own mind, stuck on board close to shore and unable to see Mary or his father, or to proceed on the voyage. One day these anguished thoughts were interrupted.

A small boat was to be sent ashore on some errand. John was ordered to command the party, and particularly instructed not to allow any impressed seamen to escape in port. John's intimate thoughts are not recorded, but on landing at Plymouth, he deserted. Any able-bodied seaman ashore in Plymouth was suspect as a deserter, so John immediately set out to walk to where his father might be. On the road to Dartmouth, he was apprehended by an army detachment looking for deserters from the merchant fleet, and marched back in disgrace.

Retribution was swift. He was reduced to ordinary seaman and flogged in the presence of the entire ship's company. Service with the common seamen was worse from the scorn of those he had previously supervised and his former midshipmen colleagues.

The first leg of the journey was to Madeira, where they remained some weeks. Here occurred another fateful event. On the very day the HARWICH was to sail down the west coast of Africa to the Cape of Good Hope, John overslept. A midshipman cut down his hammock to make an example of a sluggard, and John, getting to his feet, saw a man stowing his gear in a small boat. On inquiry, it turned out that the HARWICH had impressed two experienced seaman from a Guinea Coast slave ship and was giving two undesirable men in exchange. John ran to request that he be the second man and with the Captain's assent he found himself on board a slave ship bound for what is now Sierra Leone.

At first this was a great improvement in John's circumstances. The ship was roomier, discipline easier and the captain knew his father. But John had developed what could only be called a bad attitude. The captain cared not that John was a freethinker instead of a true believer or that he had taken to blasphemy and swearing, but John was indolent and disrespectful, going so far as to compose for the crew a song ridiculing the captain. On the other hand, he was more intelligent, well-spoken and efficient than the rest of the crew. When the cargo of slaves was loaded and the ship preparing to depart for the West Indies, the captain suddenly died.

The first mate then assumed command. He disliked John, apparently regarding him as a bad influence on the crew. Knowing this, John realized he had a problem. On reaching port, or even sooner if opportunity offered, the new captain could turn John over to a naval vessel as a troublemaker and that ship would accept him as an experienced seaman. In that case, he would be back where he started.

It happened that this ship had carried a slave-dealer named Clow back from England to his place of business on the Guinea coast. John approached him for a job, not only to escape from the ship but to earn some money, as many others had done in this business. Clow cared nothing for any of John's faults, figuring he could get a lot of work from John at little or no cost. If John made trouble or stole too much in trade goods, Clow could easily abandon him on the beach or leave him at one of the villages. At age 20, caring only for the girl he left behind him and hoping to earn some money, he entered the slave trade.

The first Englishman to transport slaves from Africa was John Hawkins, who made voyages in 1562 and 1563. Nothing seems to have come of this and it was not until the 17th century that chartered companies were formed They eventually failed, and resumption of the trade awaited development of plantations in the West Indies, the southern colonies and even Brazil.

European traders acquired slaves from local rulers in the region, or organized gangs to raid villages. Payment was mainly in European-manufactured goods. Buying trips were along the coast, or up-river to more distant locations. The latter were more hazardous but the merchandise was cheaper. Clow's intention was to build a house and storage for trade goods on a nearby island and then to make buying trips. Then trouble began.

Clow brought a native woman to live with him, but not an ordinary one. She had influence, not only within her tribe, but in other coastal areas as well. The association with Clow added to her prestige and material wealth. She took an immediate dislike to this young man from Clow's tribe who could read, write and talk with Clow about matters of which she was ignorant.

John now fell seriously ill so was unable to accompany Clow on a two-month coastal trip. The mistress left behind made John's situation as difficult as possible, withholding food and clothing and encouraging ridicule from the slaves in attendance.

On Clow's return, John complained but to no avail. The mistress easily convinced Clow that John was lazy and deceitful. Soon Clow set forth again, this time up-river. Convinced that John was stealing trade goods, which were stored next to the sleeping quarters below deck, Clow locked the hatch when ashore leaving John restricted to the open deck with little food of clothing, sometimes for days at a time.

On return to headquarters some 2 months later, still penniless, he was put to work almost like a slave. This continued about a year. During this time he managed to send several letters by visiting ships' boats. From Africa to England this was chancy at best, but one addressed to his father arrived. A few went to Mary Catlett. His father then arranged for inquiries to be made by slave ship captains setting forth from England, but unexpected relief came from another quarter.

Another trader, visiting Clow, agreed to take John off his hands, reckoning that John looked promising and Clow's opinion was unreliable. The new man was a substantial trader with several posts for trade along the coast. Clothed, fed and treated fairly, John proved a good worker. The new trader then sent John and another man to a post about 100 miles away.

From here they made hazardous up-country trips to buy slaves, palm oil and rice. Once, when needing supplies, the other man went to the beach just in case a ship might be visible. The regular method for signaling passing ships to stop for trade was to send up a smoke signal. This particular location was not a good one for the purpose, as ships passing this part of the coast usually were too far offshore to stop for trade. It just happened that the ship GREYHOUND was closer to shore and that it was able to stop. A half-hour later the prevailing wind would not have allowed it to come about.

The trader went out in his canoe and was startled when the captain asked if he had ever heard of John Newton. John, hearing this, hesitated. He badly wanted to be near Mary but was still penniless with no prospects. The captain, sensing what was best for the young man, lied about the condition of the ship and an imaginary inheritance awaiting John in England. He was persuaded and joined the ship, rightly thinking this a miraculous opportunity.

The GREYHOUND was not a slaver, but a trader for valuable cargo such as ivory, beeswax, dyer's wood and gold. It had been on the coast several months and was expected to remain another year. A small ship, it had to follow the roundabout route of the trade winds, which included a stop at the Grand Banks to fish for cod. Having no formal duties, John improved his time by reading, drinking, inventing new forms of blasphemy and entertaining his new shipmates.

In the cold North Atlantic they encountered bad storms, losing much of their provisions and sails, and almost the ship itself. Since much of the cargo was lighter than water, it helped keep the ship afloat. After drifting for several weeks, they finally got a wind which providentially took them straight to Ireland, as the condition of the ship and remaining sails rendered it almost unmaneuverable. They arrived, as John wrote, at the very end of their provisions, the last of which was then being cooked. A few hours after arrival, the wind shifted and a gale came up which would surely have sunk the ship had they been at sea one more day.

During the trip, John. a non-swimmer like most, had two narrow escapes from drowning. While helping to work the ship during the worst of the storm, he fell half-overboard and was only providentially rescued. At this moment, he says, he found himself invoking the help of God. During the same storm the captain sent him on an errand; the man who took his place on deck was washed overboard and lost.

Like all others, this voyage had many long and dull periods. John, always an omnivorous reader, found a copy of Thomas a Kempis's' Imitation of Christ. During the six weeks of the year 1748 which he waited in Ireland for the ship to be refitted, he had time to think about the passages which said: " Since Life is of short and uncertain Continuance, it highly concerns you to look about you and take good heed how you employ it. Today the Man is vigorous, and gay, and flourishing, and to Morrow he is cut down, withered and gone. " Again: "Whereas in truth, every Work, and Word, and Thought, ought to be so ordered, as if it were to be our last; and we instantly to Die and render an Account of it."

The local people were most hospitable to the weary, stranded crew, and one day the mayor of Londonderry took John on a fowling expedition. John tripped and the gun discharged, blowing off part of his hat. He was not yet ready for a religious conversion, but certainly he had been favored by Providence and the words of aKempis gave him much to think about.

In the meantime his father had received the letter from Africa. Unaware of John's arrival in Ireland, he was preparing for another trip. Now he did finally visit the Catlett family and after discussion, all the parents agreed to permit the wedding if John and Mary wished it. John had written letters to her frequently, beginning from his days on the HARWICH and during the discouraging time in Africa, always in affectionate terms and never knowing when or if they would be received.

Encouraged by a letter from Mary's aunt, John went to Chatham on his return and was well received by the Catlett family. He and Mary then reached an understanding, if not a formal engagement. He was now 23 years old.

Needing gainful employment, he approached Mr. Manesty, his father's Liverpool friend who had previously tried to help. Manesty offered him command of a slave ship, then preparing for a voyage. John, considering his limited shipboard experience, asked to be mate instead. This was arranged, and the captain chosen was the former mate of the GREYHOUND.

This voyage went normally, but was unusual in that the cargo destination was Charleston, S. C. instead of in the West Indies. Charleston had been visited by the famous preachers John Wesley and George Whitefield, whose sermons caused much discussion. There was even a suggestion now that slaves might have a chance to go to Heaven. There was also talk that conditions for slave on plantations might be improved. All this John took note of.

At the conclusion of this successful voyage. Manesty offered him a captaincy in the next season. Armed with this evidence of an honest occupation, the esteem of his employer, his maturity and now-apparent personal qualities, John proposed formally. After a little maidenly reluctance, Mary accepted. They were married in February, 1750 when he was 25 and she 21.

Barely 6 months later, in August 1750, he took command of a decrepit slave ship and departed for the Guinea coast, not to return until October, 1751. This would now seem a long separation for newly-weds, but was a usual length for such a trip. Of the 30 original company, only 16 returned. All the others except one, including the doctor, died of various illnesses.

His next command was ready in the summer of 1752 and the voyage lasted one year. There were problems with troublemakers in the crew and an attempted revolt by the slaves aboard. By now Captain Newton, as we should call him, had further considered the role of religion and moral virtue in daily life. and conducted Sunday services for the crew, trying to adapt them to the understanding of uneducated men.

A third voyage, from which he returned in mid-1754, was remarkable in that no lives were lost - neither crew nor cargo. It was common to lose some of the crew and from one-quarter to one-third of the cargo to disease. As a notable feat, this might compare to coaching the Chicago Cubs to the world championship.

The next great turning-point of his life came in 1754. Intending to command another voyage in that year, he had some kind of fit or seizure. On recovering well, he listened to good advice, resigned his command, and at age 29 found himself again unemployed. The ship sailed with another captain. Mr. Manesty was willing to give him another command, but had to wait for the results of this voyage, which would take a year.

During this time Newton was unemployed, but the hand of Providence was surely at work here. News eventually came that the ship's crew had been overpowered by the slaves, the ship driven ashore and all officers killed. This might not have happened had Newton been in charge, but he chose not to take another command and to seek a job ashore. The slave trade was an accepted occupation - there were cogent reason for its existence and so far, few if any voices raised against it. In any case he was tiring of an occupation involving shackles and chains, as well as association with the types of crew and others he had to deal with. We may also be sure that he and his wife were tired of such long separations.

In 1755 Mr. Manesty again intervened, and through influence with the local Member of Parliament, secured Newton a job with His Majesty's Customs Service in Liverpool. The position was as a Tide-Surveyor, which was essentially a customs inspector. It is interesting to note that such jobs were within the patronage of the local M. P. Liverpool had a population of 22,000 but had no representative in Parliament. The outdated borough system had not been reformed and Liverpool was represented by the Member for Chester.

His duty was to board incoming ships to inspect the cargo and compare it with the customs declaration. The salary was to be 50 per year plus one-half the value of any smuggled goods found. Occasionally there were some unofficial fees, technically illegal but permitted, within reason, by the Collector. Newton's scruples eventually prevailed and he determined to accept no more.

Though not a large city, Liverpool had some 350 ships, of which about 100 were in the slave trade. Slaves were not imported as cargo, but coffee, tea, liquor and tobacco were valuable commodities. Smuggling was rampant. Prime Minister Pitt estimated 13 million pounds of tea were consumed annually, of which perhaps five and one-half million had duty paid.

Newton had what would be considered a good job. The salary was adequate, the hours regular and there was plenty of time between ships to read and study. In a modest provincial city without a real upper class, it afforded entree to what passed for society. Being so familiar with shipping and sailing, he understood the job well. Mary found herself at a distance from her own family, but she could frequently visit. The only disadvantage was that it was often necessary to be rowed out to an incoming ship at night or in bad weather. One more lucky escape came his way. Once he was late to board his boat, and before it could reach the ship, the ship blew up with the loss of all aboard..

During his nine years as a Tide Surveyor, he used his spare time for reading, study and when possible, travel.. He read theology, improved his Latin, studied Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic and even shorthand. It was said that Newton learned Greek to study the Scriptures, not because, as Lord Chesterfield said, Latin was common but Greek distinguishes a man. When beached in Africa he studied the only book he had, Euclid's Geometry. As a serious reader, recall his teen-age purchase of a treatise on freethinking.

The process of religious conversion had, in fact begun earlier while awaiting another ship. Right on target was the account of a contemporary hero, Col. Gardiner. A respected army officer, he had been killed in 1745 during the Jacobite rebellion in Scotland. In life he had been called the "Happy Rake", apparently with good reason. His biographer stated that while awaiting an assignation with a married woman, he had a vision of Christ on the Cross. There was a suggestion that he might have only dozed off while waiting and had a dream, but the moral was equally obvious. He repented of his ways and went about telling all his friends about his change of life and urging them to look to their ways. Like Newton, he had learned piety from his mother at a tender age, turned away from Christian principles and become a man of action. Like Newton, he had had narrow escapes on being thrown from a horse and from shipwreck. To what extent this turned Newton to another career is unclear, but the parallel is there. Conversion to a moral life had began much earlier. Before marriage, he had given up blasphemy and intemperate drinking, and, most remarkable to other ship captains, he scored an important victory over sin by no longer consorting with female slaves.

If another sign from above were needed, Newton could recall the fate some years earlier of his two former freethinker midshipman friends from the HARWICH. One, persisting in freethinking beyond the point of becoming obnoxious, died of fever on the African coast. The other was washed overboard in an Atlantic storm.

In his free time, Newton visited churches in other towns and heard famous preachers. He heard Wesley and Whitefield preach, and was much impressed that the latter could attract a crown of several thousand at five or six o'clock of a dark outdoor morning. They preached to the unchurched lower classes, and proper citizens regarded them disdainfully as "Methodists". Newton, however, recognized the point of reaching out to the large mass of poor and ignorant folk who largely avoided the established church.

By his 33rd birthday, in 1758 he decided to pursue ordination, the fourth turning-point of his life. With help and introductions from others, he applied to the Bishop of Chester who rebuffed him. Application to the Archbishop of York was likewise unsuccessful, the Archbishop suggesting he was foolish to give up a steady job worth perhaps 100 per year for a risky curacy paying perhaps 25. Application to the Archbishop of Canterbury had no better results.

During 1760 he had conversations with Wesley, at that time still an Anglican cleric. Wesley observed that Newton had a great deal of learning and excellent character, but not having attended Oxford or Cambridge universities, could not be ordained. Many university graduates with less learning had been ordained and entered church service. Wesley suggested that Newton might become an itinerant preacher. Newton, however, preferred a settled situation, saying at age 35 he was too old to ride horseback more than 30 miles a day and that his wife needed him. Also, he disliked the dour image and approach of many Methodist preachers and was unwilling to abandon his middle-class status to cast his lot with them. In Liverpool the Methodists were very unpopular.

But he was determined to continue his serious effort for ordination in the Anglican church. A Yorkshire friend offered to help his become a Congregational minister, Newton having preached in Congregational churches, but he persisted in his hope. At that point, one of his many friends wrote to Lord Dartmouth on Newton's behalf.

Lord Dartmouth at age 33 had already been in the House of Lords ten years. Well-regarded there, he was also an active lay churchman. Later he became president of the Board of Trade and Secretary of State for the Colonies. In that capacity Benjamin Franklin wrote approvingly of him. In this country, Dartmouth College is named for him. Lord Dartmouth took an interest in Newton and his obvious sincere mission to preach the gospel. He met with Newton in the most friendly manner on several occasions and introduced him to useful people, including John Thornton, perhaps the wealthiest merchant in England. By this time Newton had finished the first `draft of his famous Authentic Narrative, recounting his childhood, travels and adventures up to the return to Ireland. A copy found its way to Lord Dartmouth, convincing him that here was a worthy man.

Through Lord Dartmouth's intercession, Newton had an interview with the Archbishop of York. The latter declined to perform the ordination but referred him to the Bishop of Lincoln, who, after examination, did so. In the examination Newton was honest - he demurred at a few points of ritual and the catechism, but was accepted. At the age of 39, in 1764, he became a curate in the Church of England.

Next he had to obtain a parish and resign from the customs service. It is noteworthy that he refused to do this by letter or allow another to inform the Liverpool Collector; he insisted on resigning in person. Through Lord Dartmouth he was offered, and accepted, the curacy of Olney in Buckinghamshire.

Before taking up his new duties, he preached at St. George's, the principal church of Liverpool. Aware of God's grace and his good fortune in finally having found his life's path, what must he have thought at seeing the leading citizens present? There was Mr. Manesty with the town clerk. Perhaps he recalled how, in 1742 Mr. Manesty had obliged the elder Captain Newton by offering his 17-year old son a chance to make his way in the world, and how John had spurned this generosity. We remember he had stayed too long with the Catlett family, missing his would-be benefactor's ship to Jamaica but meeting his future wife. No doubt God's grace had persuaded Mr. Manesty to offer an irresponsible youth another chance, leading to the African voyages, and later obtaining for him the Customs job.

Olney was not a really desirable duty post. The location left much to be desired and the makers of lace, the town's principal occupation, were poor and ignorant. Newton worked diligently at preaching, writing and making personal contact with his parishioners. Church attendance began to improve and then a better offer came.

Mary's mother, hoping to have her daughter closer, spoke to a neighbor with connections, and presently Newton was offered the living of Hampstead. At that time, Hampstead was a pleasant village suburb of London with a genteel population and it paid more than Olney. In those days, even for the clergy, job-hopping to a better offer was accepted. Some clergy held multiple livings. Newton, however, decided his duty lay in Olney, feeling obliged to the poor of the parish.. He had written "Such is the power of Grace to make everyone satisfied with the appointment of Divine Providence". His wife was disappointed but not surprised.

Apparently Newton was not a great preacher. A contemporary said he "did not generally aim at accuracy...his utterance was far from clear and his attitudes ungraceful". This might be expected of a self-made man of action who had not the polish of a university education. But in a time when long sermons were common, Newton felt one hour to be about right, saying" it is better to feed our people like chickens - a little and often than to cram them like turkeys till they cannot hold more."

In 1767 there was published a volume of his sermons preached at Olney. Newton considered himself a Calvinist, though not a strict one and had a somewhat independent view of Anglican liturgy. The sermons reflect lack of formal scholarship but it was his personal experiences that shaped his life and work.

Newton's position in Olney was solid. Many vicars and curates worked one or two days a week, following their personal interests the rest of the time. Newton preached as many as a dozen sermons a week and visited the lace-makers and others at their homes. He interested himself in the large numbers of uneducated and neglected children, many of whom worked under conditions little better than slavery. At the vicarage he conducted Sunday evening meetings of prayer and singing. He and Mary entertained many visitors, Olney being on a well-traveled road, and he had an active correspondence, Much of this was occasioned by the fame of his Authentic Narrative.

All this cost money. The living was worth 50 per year, plus some fees, but 20 had to go to the absent vicar. Newton's own savings from his voyages, plus those from the years as a Tide-Surveyor had been left for investment with Mr. Manesty. Now that worthy gentleman declared bankruptcy and died shortly thereafter. Mary's family had been concerned over the great reduction in his income, but Newton exemplified Pope's lines:

"What, and how great, the Virtue and the Art To live on little with a cheerful heart."

Again Newton's diligence and perseverance came to his rescue. The wealthy merchant John Thornton, previously mentioned, was very generous to many worthy causes and needy clergymen. He too had read the Authentic Narrative and promised to send books and money to 200 per year. This was most generous, but it is said that during his 15 years at Olney, Newton spent some 3000 of Thornton's money. Lord Dartmouth and others also contributed to Newton's outreach program.

Newton's best friend and intellectual companion in Olney was the poet William Cowper. Himself the son of a clergyman, the two collaborated in writing the famous Olney Hymns. Of a total of 348, 68 were by Cowper and 280 by Newton. Many were inspired by Bible passages, others relate to specific occasions. Common themes are the love of Jesus, mercy and salvation. Newton's own spiritual experiences were a major influence in them. Thornton underwrote publication of the first 1000 copies. A few of the hymns are in use today.

By 1779 it was time to move on. Newton was becoming disenchanted with Olney, prayer and singing sessions had declined and he found it almost impossible to have a long-term effect on poverty and ignorance. Then John Thornton offered him the living of St. Mary Woolnoth in London. In Olney Newton had become known as a leader of the Evangelical faction within the church, and this was almost the only one in London controlled by the Evangelical faction of the Anglican church. It was centrally located not far from Newton's childhood neighborhood. By now he had become known beyond the reach of the average vicar. For example, at least one of Wordsworth's poems was influenced by the Authentic Narrative and literary scholars trace parallels between that and Coleridge's Rhyme of the Ancient Mariner.

London and this parish were very different from Olney. The city was noisy, crowded and smoky. In Olney there had been relative quiet, a garden and extensive countryside for the long walks Newton enjoyed. There were only 100 houses in the parish, containing artisans, shopkeepers and well-to-do merchants. Samuel Johnson's observation about London parishes may well have described this living: "Comfortable and one only had to know one-tenth of the parishioners".

His biographer says little about pastoral activities in London, and there is probably less to relate than in Olney. He arrived with some fame due to published volumes of letters, the Authentic Narrative and the Olney Hymns. Certainly it was a more diverse audience than at Olney. Aware of his debt to Dissenters during the years of religious development prior to ordination, he associated readily with them, even though they were despised and often persecuted by the traditional Establishment. Followers of Wesley, having set up their own churches, suggested he join them, but Newton felt that the Anglican discipline and organization was better for his ministry.

In 1785 one of Newton's many visitors seeking advice and moral support was William Wilberforce. the Member of Parliament and philanthropist remembered for his leadership of the movement to abolish the slave trade. From the previous decade there had been growing opposition to the trade, principally by intellectuals, Quakers and other Dissenters with little political influence.

The idea was not new, but there were arguments in favor of the trade. It had long been defended as part of the immemorial natural order of things and in accord with religious principles. After all, did it not appear in the Bible? Some maintained the heathen slaves were better off for the chance to become Christians and escape Hell. Civilization was presumed better than living in savagery in the African bush. Writing in 1777, Boswell said "to abolish the trade would be to shut the gates of mercy on mankind".

Then there were economic arguments. Plantations needed cheap labor and England needed the rum, cotton and sugar they produced. Shipbuilding and repair employed many artisans and their families. Sailors gained valuable experience on these voyages and the Royal Navy needed all the qualified seamen it could get. Most, but not all, ships in the trade were English; if their business were taken away, others countries would surely fill the gap.

Wilberforce, from a wealthy family, was already at age 26 a well-known member of Parliament, a London club man and an intimate of Prime Minister Pitt. As a boy he had benefited from a religious upbringing by an aunt, who Newton knew, but was recalled home for a more secular rearing suitable to the family's social standing and his own future prospects. There was nothing wrong with this, but as a young man desiring to lead a moral life with some useful purpose, he sought out the Rev. Newton.

Though at age 60, Newton was 34 years older than Wilberforce, they got on well together and had numerous discussions. Talk came around to the slave trade, which Newton had long ago repented of taking part in. In 1787 Wilberforce was a founding member of the Society for the Abolition of Slavery.

While Wilberforce was collecting evidence and seeking support, Newton wrote an influential pamphlet entitled "Thoughts upon the African Slave Trade". Widely distributed, it attracted considerable attention. Describing evils and cruelties he had seen or heard of, it is in a sense also a confession of his past sins. It is ironic that as master of the Liverpool ship THE AFRICAN thirty years earlier, he had noted in the ship's log that it would be pleasant to remember a good voyage in later years.

Wilberforce had secured the support of the prime minister to oppose the slave trade. In 1788, when a committee of the Privy Council was inquiring into the slave trade, Newton was invited to give evidence and the prime minister personally introduced him to the committee. The following year Wilberforce introduced resolutions for the House of Commons to hold hearings leading to abolition of the trade. Hearings were held in 1790 and 1791, and again Newton gave evidence. The legislative process took time, during which the government's attention had to be focused on the war with France, but eventually in 1807 both houses of Parliament passed a bill to abolish the trade.

In 1790 his beloved wife Mary died. Their youthful infatuation had become a solid and affectionate marriage lasting 40 years. Throughout separations both long and short he had written affectionate letters. In fact, he sometimes wrote a letter to her when they were under the same roof. She was less of a correspondent than he and had not his literary ability, but the affection and regard were there. Many of these letters have survived. Her health had never been robust but she had not suffered lengthy illness until near the end. when she realized she had cancer. Newton loved children, but they were childless. Apparently neither had ever been seriously interested in any other member of the opposite sex.

Newton himself preached the funeral sermon and here we see another facet of his character. In the course of his ministry he, on his biographer's estimate, may have preached ten thousand times from the pulpit. Favorite sermons, of course, must have been used many times. Before ordination, one day he read in the Old Testament the account of Habbakuk who determined to rejoice in God in spite of his many sorrows. Newton wondered if his own belief could be as firm as the prophet's. Thinking his greatest sorrow would be the death of his beloved wife, he composed his sermon, but reserved it for the occasion, which proved to be at least 26 years later. His biographer quotes as follows:

"Although the fig tree shall not blossom, neither shall fruit be in the vines; the labour of the olive shall fail, and the flocks shall yield no meat; the flocks shall be cut off from the fold, and there shall be no herd in the stalls; Yet I will rejoice in the Lord, I will joy in the God of my salvation".

There is less to be said of his last years at St. Mary's. Assisted bu curates, he continued his duties, and on occasion he preached at the asylum popularly called Bedlam. By 1802 his vision had deteriorated and he needed help to walk and enter the pulpit, but he refused to give up. On occasion a city alderman would send his carriage, or another man his servant to help. By 1805 he could not see to read. When a friend suggested it was time to retire, Newton's response was "What, shall the old African blasphemer stop while he can speak?".

In 1806 he spoke from the pulpit for the last time. There was a special service to raise funds for survivors of the battle of Trafalgar. Newton was a prominent clergyman, had served in the Navy and knew well the First Lord of the Admiralty, so it was appropriate that he speak in their. behalf. His mind wandered to long-ago events and someone had to go to the pulpit to remind him of the topic.

In his last year, in retirement, he awaited the end with tranquillity. To an inquiring friend he said "I am like a person going a journey in a stagecoach, who expects its arrival every hour, and is frequently looking out the window for it". As his biographer puts it, the coach came on Dec. 21, 1807. He was then 82 years old. It is good to note that the bill to abolish the slave trade had passed in the same year, shortly before his death.

To understand why he is remembered today, we must return to the Olney Hymns. Published in 1779, they reached a wide audience in England, but few are known today. There is one outstanding exception. Aside from a very few of the great Christmas carols, the effect of which is enhanced by seasonal sentiment, Amazing Grace has become perhaps the best-known and most moving hymn in the English language. Set in 1900 to a popular nineteenth-century American campground-meeting melody, it is used in both Protestant and Catholic services. Who among us has not heard or sung it at a funeral service? It was sung at the committal service for Cardinal Bernardin and heard then by a large television audience. It has been translated into numerous other languages, including at least five American Indian ones.

In his introduction to the volume of hymns, Newton said they were written for plain people. Certainly the message of grace, salvation and redemption is clear. Those who read his life will readily see the source of his words that are known to so many today.

"Amazing grace How sweet the sound that saved a wretch like me! I once was lost, but now am found, was blind, but now I see." In this first stanza we would assume he had been spiritually lost during his years turned away from religious principles, but there may have been more. As a young boy, he surely felt neglected. Did he never feel lost while on the HARWICH, or while on his own on the African coast?

"Through many dangers, toils and snares, I have already come; 'tis grace hath brought me safe thus far, and grace will lead me home." In this third stanza we can see his many encounters with the perils of the seaman and the long-shot rescue from the African beach. Perhaps he thought of his childhood fall from a horse or being left behind when his friends' small boat capsized. Who could ever forget the almost miraculous ending to the voyage in the GREYHOUND? Did he not escape the fevers and infections which claimed the lives of so many others at sea and in Africa?

" 'Twas grace that taught my heart to fear, and grace my fears relieved; how precious did that grace appear the hour I first believed". Do we sense here the beginning of a spiritual reawakening during long hours at sea while in command on his later voyages? There is no doubt this process continued ashore and culminated in the last great turning point of his life - the decision to seek ordination.

"The Lord has promised good to me, his word my hope secures; he will my shield and portion be, as long as life endures". Here we may see optimism - looking forward to his new career. He has already had, during his earlier days, protection by a higher power and there is hope for more to come.

"Yea, when this flesh and heart shall fail, and mortal life shall cease, I shall possess, within the veil, a life of joy and peace." Here we may see Newton, fortunate in his confidence that he has done the right thing, waiting for the coach to come.

I will close with two quotations. "None of us lives as his own master." This was said during the committal service for Cardinal Bernardin last week. John Newton surely would have agreed.

The second, from scripture, he painted over the mantelpiece of his study in Olney, and it may be seen today. "Since thou wast precious in my sight, thou hast been honorable. But thou shalt remember that thou wast a bondman in the land of Egypt, and the Lord thy God redeemed thee". In Biblical language, this well summarizes his life.

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